At this point in the series we have reached 1905. The Russo-Japanese War had just concluded with a peace settlement reached, moderated by the United States. China was technically at peace, but as we’ll explore later in this post, there was a lot of conflict ongoing within China’s borders – foreign states fighting one another and internal actors seeking to overthrow the Chinese Qing Dynasty government (the last of the Chinese imperial governments established by the Manchu people of northern China). What becomes confusing is the ebb-and-flow of  the control of “areas” of China in the first half of the 20th century. This post will attempt to offer a primer in area and names that will be bandied about in the following posts.

The major “areas” are as follows – and some of the nomenclature is mine in an attempt to (hopefully) make it easier to follow the storyline:

• China: the southern part of the nation nominally in control of the Chinese government(s) and unoccupied by a foreign power. Under the China “Open Door” policy (not a treaty but a working understanding) most European powers had enclaves in port cities and important cities of the interior prior to WW2.
• Manchuria: the traditional area in the northernmost bounds of the nation of China that was occupied, reoccupied, and in conflict between non-Chinese nations for the first half of the 20th century. It shares a border with Korea and Liaodong to the south and Siberia to the north. Importantly the railroad across Manchuria connected the TransSiberian Railroad to Russia’s eastern port of Vladivostok. 
• Northern China: a “made up” term that will be used to describe the area south of Manchuria and north of the rest of China. It is the area during the Second Sino-Japanese War (b. 1937) and incidents leading up to that conflict in which Japanese and Chinese forces clashed. While not exactly accurate, it is an area north of the Great Wall of China.
• Inner Mongolia: a crescent shaped area north of “Northern China” and west-southwest of Manchuria. It largely borders Mongolia (a Russian state) with some shared border area with Russia (Siberia) 
• Laiodong (Kwantung): a peninsula west of Korea peninsula that is important for its warm water ports (notably Port Arthur) and the terminus of a railway system that connected the ports to the Trans-Siberian Railroad. The Chinese Eastern Railroad will later be called South Manchurian Railroad and later designated the North Manchurian Railroad
• Korea: the boundaries then are the same as now. In the early 20th century it was technically an independent nation with its own king and queen.
• Formosa: now known as Taiwan.

Korea

Korea has its own rich and varied history, but for purposes of this post, by the 20th century Korea was either a tribute state subject to China or a battleground for China, Russia, and Japan. Korea had once been a land of the “Three Kingdoms” – Goguryeo, Paekche (Baekje), and Silla. At the height of its powers the three kingdoms occupied the entire peninsula and roughly half of Manchuria and small parts of the modern Russian Far East. Goguryeo controlled the northern half of the peninsula, as well as Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria. Paekche and Silla occupied the southern half of the peninsula. 

Paekche was a great maritime power and was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism and its culture/skills to  ancient Japan. This included Chinese written characters, Chinese and Korean literature, and technologies such as ferrous metallurgy and ceramics, architectural styles, sericulture (silk worms) and Buddhism.

The history of Korea is far more complicated than the “Three Kingdom” but that was the foundation that became modern Korea (after many twists and turns!) In the late 19th century, the government implemented a strict isolationist policy, earning Korea the nickname “Hermit Kingdom”. Like Japan, the policy had been established primarily for protection against Western imperialism, but soon the ruling dynasty was forced to open trade, beginning an era leading into competing Chinese and Japanese pressures. Prior to the First Sino-Japanese War, Korea was a tribute state to China. The 1895 post-war settlement gave them independence and the King became the Emperor of Korea. 

Japan, Russia and China were the major foreign powers with interests in Korea, but at the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, the Korean Empire effectively became a protectorate of Japan. At point of great contention, then and now, is that the 1905 Protectorate Treaty promulgated without the Emperor. It was not dissimilar to the U.S. annexation of Hawaii in 1898. Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and so things remained until 1945 and the defeat of Japan. 

There is a long history of animosity between Korea and Japan stemming from the 1905-1945 period. Even today, Korea feels that Japan has not sufficiently acknowledged numerous injustices from the period, with grievances focusing on an alleged lack of a clear, straightforward admission of historical wrongdoing, denial of specific atrocities, and failure to provide appropriate reparations to individual victims. The list of injustices includes:

• Sexual slavery (“comfort women”): the forced recruitment of tens of thousands of women, mostly Korean, into Japanese military brothels across Asia and the Pacific as sexual slaves.
• Forced labor: millions of Koreans were forced to work in harsh conditions in mines, factories, and on construction sites in Japan and its colonies with little to no payment.
• Cultural suppression: Japan implemented policies aimed at erasing Korean national identity, including banning the Korean language in schools and public spaces, forcing Koreans to adopt Japanese names, burning Korean historical documents, and converting Korean temples to honor Japanese deities.    
• Massacres and war crimes: Koreans highlight several mass murders and atrocities committed by Japanese forces, such as the Gando and Kantō massacres, not acknowledged by Japan.
• Legality of annexation: There is an ongoing dispute over the legality of the 1910 Annexation Treaty itself, which many Koreans view as having been signed under duress and therefore invalid. 

Japan and Korea

Japan had long been interested in Korea, “the dagger pointed at the heart of Japan.” Neutrality was not an option. Japan wanted control as part of its vision of strategic buffers. But in addition, Japan needed Korea’s food production, natural resources, and land for Japanese emigrants due over population concerns in the home islands. 

Image credit: various photographs from Naval Aviation Museum, National World War II Museum, and US Navy Archives. | Map courtesy of MapWorks 2005

The First Sino-Japanese war marked Japan as a military power – but was Japan capable of engaging a western military power? That question would be put to the test in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905.

In the previous post we noted that the transfer of Liaodong Peninsula and its warm water Port Arthur were ceded to Japan in the treaty that ended the First Sino-Japanese War.  Via the “Triple Intervention,” (of which Russia was the primary animator), Japan reluctantly agreed to return Liaodong to China in 1895, the same year the war ended. In 1898 the ports of Liaodong and Port Authur were leased to Russia. The news was not received well in Japan. Beyond the humiliation, this meant the very thing Japan feared: a western imperial power gaining a foothold in what Japan considered its “security zone.” But Japan also realized Russia’ long term goals and objectives were even more ominous.

Russia had a similar view of Japan and sought to construct “security zones” that provided protection, strategic depth while providing economic and diplomatic leverage. Russia’s Far Eastern policy aimed at the warm-water port of Port Arthur. In addition Russia wanted to extend its influence southward from Siberia into Manchuria and Korea. This would link the Pacific coast firmly to European Russia. 

All this brought Russia even more deeply and directly into Japan’s perceived security zone.

Precursors to War

After 1895, Russia steadily entrenched itself in Manchuria as it had gained rights to build the Chinese Eastern Railway across Manchuria to connect to the Trans-Siberian Railway. In 1898 the aforementioned lease of Port Arthur was secured and in 1900 the Russian military took advantage of conflict and occupied Manchuria during China’s Boxer Rebellion. Then Russia failed to fully withdraw from Manchuria afterward, despite repeated promises. Japanese leaders interpreted this as bad faith and evidence of permanent annexation plans. All this transformed Russia from a distant empire into a direct territorial rival.

Although Manchuria was vital, Korea was the emotional and strategic trigger. After 1895, Russia increased diplomatic, financial, and military involvement in Korea. Russian advisers appeared at the Korean court. Russia was giving all the signs and indications that their goal was for Korea to become a Russian protectorate, mirroring what had happened in Manchuria. Japan was willing to compromise on Manchuria; it was not willing to compromise on Korea.

From 1901–1904, Japan sought negotiated settlements, proposing that Japan recognize Russian predominance in Manchuria in exchange for Russian recognition of Japanese predominance in Korea. Russia repeatedly delayed responses and when they did reply the concessions or counters were vague or conditional. At the same time the Russians continued strengthening their military position. Japan rightly concluded that Russia was using diplomacy to buy time.

Internal pressures pushed Japan toward war. After the Triple Intervention, Japan believed its status as a great power depended on resisting further humiliation. Many Japanese believed they must fight before Russia completed the Chinese Eastern Railway and achieved overwhelming superiority – it was now or never – and the nation, for 20 years, had been investing in the military for a contingency just like this. Further delay favored Russia and so “now” seemed to be the window for victory; a window that might soon close. War increasingly appeared to be the least bad option.

How to understand the Russo-Japanese War

The Triple Intervention’s legacy went beyond immediate grievance. It convinced Japan that international law and diplomacy favored the strong, hardened Japanese elites against reliance on Western goodwill, and reinforced the belief that only decisive force could secure Japan’s place. The Triple Intervention was not a cause of war, but a lesson learned.

Other world powers had their own concerns about Russia. Britain and the United States preferred a strong Japan to check Russian expansion and applied no serious pressure on Japan to back down. In addition the Britain–Japan Alliance (1902) reassured Japan that it would not face a multi-power coalition. And so Japan did not fear diplomatic isolation in the way it had regarding the First Sino-Japanese War. All of this gave indications that perhaps Japan was being accepted as a world power or at least acknowledged as the preeminent Asia power.

Meanwhile, Russia never prepared for war. On one hand Russia was far more concerned with European matters and internal court intrigue. On the other, Russia severely underestimated Japan’s military power, the existential threat they were imposing upon Japan, its willingness to attack a European power, and other factors that likely included racial and cultural assumptions that Japan was a “second-rate” power. Besides, time was on their side; or so they believed.

Over time, historians have developed different views of the war. In part, because more primary source information became available and the lenses of understanding changed between generations.  Up until the 1950s, the understanding was that Russian aggression and imperial expansion were the primary causes; Japan fought a defensive, pre-emptive war. It was believed that Japan exhausted diplomatic options and struck only when delay became fatal. Overall, the clash is viewed as a case of a rising regional power resisting European imperialism. Any Japanese imperial ambitions are downplayed and priority is given to the perceived threat from Russia.

In the 1960s the assertion was that Japan deliberately chose war to secure imperial expansion. Russia was cautious, divided, and often defensive while Japan overstated the Korean security threat to justify expansion. Captured by internal politics, Tokyo rejected workable compromises to avoid diplomatic limits on its freedom. At the same time, military and naval elites used war to secure budgets, cement political influence and validate the expenses of the modernization efforts.  Russia, lacking a coherent Far Eastern strategy, repeatedly sought delays. This view underplays how threatening Russian actions appeared to Japanese decision-makers at the time.

From the 1990s onward the view judges that the war resulted from mutual imperial ambitions, compounded by misperception, bureaucratic politics, and structural insecurity. This approach does not split blame cleanly but asks, “Why did compromise fail when it seemed possible?”

The general conclusion is that diplomacy failed because Russia’s bureaucracy was fragmented causing delays which Japan interpreted as deception. Both sides believed time favored the other, creating a commitment trap. Along with other factors, war was not inevitable, but once certain thresholds were crossed, it became likely. 

When one looks at the analysis of the later Asian-Pacific War, you will discover elements of the same pattern. Often these phases are described as orthodox, revisionist, and modern (sometimes followed by neo-orthodox). It is especially in the last phases, when more primary source documents become available that specialists begin to view through specific lenses reflecting what the historian thinks is the primary driver:  economics, diplomacy, policy, politics, security, and more.

Why do I mention this? Because later in this series we will review that same morphing historiography as concerns Pearl Harbor and the Asia-Pacific War.

The War

After years of failed diplomacy, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in February 1904. Japan quickly seized the initiative on land and sea, winning major battles at Liaoyang, Mukden (remember this name), and decisively at the naval Battle of Tsushima, where Japan destroyed Russia’s Baltic Fleet. Tsushima turned a prolonged war of attrition into a rapid path to Japanese victory.

Despite Russia’s larger population and resources, she suffered from poor leadership, long supply lines, and domestic unrest all of which crippled her war effort. Japan’s modernized army and navy achieved rapid, coordinated victories but at high cost. The war ended with the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), mediated by the United States, recognizing Japan’s predominance in Korea, transferring Port Arthur and southern Manchuria to Japan, and confirming Japan as the first Asian power to defeat a European great power in modern war.

The Aftermath

The Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War is described as coming “at high cost” because military success pushed Japan close to the limits of its manpower, finances, and social cohesion, even while it won on the battlefield. The costs were real, visible, and politically destabilizing, leaving deep scars beneath the triumph.

Japan won most major engagements, but often through frontal assaults against entrenched Russian positions. The losses (deaths and casualties) were exceptionally high for a small nation. Total casualties (killed, wounded, missing) were 70,000–80,000. While the Russian losses were higher in absolute numbers, the losses were not as devastating or proportionally large.  Further, for Japan the losses fell heavily on young, conscripted males, straining villages and families. The army began to fear it was winning battles faster than it could replace men.

Japanese doctrine emphasized an offensive spirit and tactical mindset regardless of the cost. While it worked tactically in this war, attrition favored Russia in the long run. Japan’s leaders quickly came to understand that they could not sustain another year of fighting. By early 1905 ammunition stockpiles were low, replacement soldiers were less well trained, and the army was nearing exhaustion. Victory arrived just before exhaustion became defeat.

In a certain sense Japan lost the war. Japan had financed the war largely through Britain and U.S. loans supplemented by heavy domestic taxation. As a result national debt skyrocketed as war expenditures consumed well over half of government spending. Japan emerged victorious but financially dependent on international credit, and most importantly, had no leverage to impose a punitive peace as it had done after the First Sino-Japanese War. Punitive peace was the expectation of the people after such a great sacrifice.

But unlike earlier wars, Russia had suffered casualties and loss, but overall their army and navy were still substantial, no Russian territory was occupied, and the regime of Russia was not really threatened, nor was the Trans-Siberian Railway. In addition, the U.S. had moderated the treaty/settlement. President Roosevelt’s priorities were ending the war quickly, preserving a balance of power in East Asia and avoiding Russia’s complete humiliation which might destabilize Europe. Roosevelt pressed Japan to drop  indemnity demands and accept territorial and political concessions instead

Japan accepted because it needed peace more than money.

Back home, the public expected indemnity payments, territorial expansion of more than Korea and southern Manchuria, and some step-up in recognition. The perceived gap between sacrifice and reward sparked riots in Tokyo and a growing disillusionment with the current political leaders. Victory felt incomplete, even humiliating to some.

The war reinforced dangerous lessons for the Japanese military that cemented the bushidō philosophy in their ranks. It became, not just an understanding, but doctrine that bushidō spirit could overcome material disadvantage. Also, that decisive victory required willingness to accept massive losses. These lessons contributed to later tolerance for extreme casualties in future wars. In a way, the cost was not only human and financial, but ideological. And to the western mind, irrational.

Image credit: various photographs from Naval Aviation Museum, National World War II Museum, and US Navy Archives.